To Strike or Not to Strike Dual-Use Infrastructure: An Interview with Jafar Ghanadbashi, Former IRI’s Ambassador to Libya/ Pedram Tahsini

Dual-use infrastructure refers to a set of physical, networked, systemic, and technological assets that are originally designed and operated for civilian and peaceful purposes, such as transportation, energy, communications, or industrial production; but because of their strategic nature, broad coverage, high capacity, or embedded technical capabilities, they can also be used in conditions of crisis, […]...

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Interview with Sara Yousefi, Disability Rights Activist, on Internet Shutdowns During Wartime/ Nafiseh Sharafaldini

In recent years, digital technologies, the internet, and AI-based tools have played an important role in increasing independence and accessibility for persons with disabilities. For many of these individuals, screen readers, navigation apps, online services, social networks, and smart tools are not merely conveniences, but essential tools for work, education, communication, and even carrying out […]...

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Dual-Use Infrastructure in Armed Conflicts from the Perspective of International Law/ Sina Yousefi

Before the recent war between Iran on one side and Israel and the United States on the other, the term “dual-use infrastructure” was mainly used in the specialized literature of the law of armed conflict and strategic studies. But with the expansion of the scope of military operations and attacks on facilities that appear civilian […]...

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Dual-Use Research Institutions: Science or Weapon?/ Diako Moradi

Technological developments in recent decades have made the boundary between military and civilian objectives more ambiguous than ever. Universities, research centers, biomedical institutions, data networks, and communications infrastructure, while having civilian functions, can in some cases play a direct or indirect role in states’ defense capabilities. This situation has transformed the concept of “dual-use” from […]...

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The Accusation of “Human Shields”: The Boundary Between Military Tactic and Propaganda Tool/ Mustafa Danandeh

Contemporary wars no longer unfold only on the battlefield. Alongside missiles, drones, and military operations, another battle also takes shape in the realm of narratives and legitimacy-building; a war in which each side seeks to justify its own actions within the framework of international law and present the actions of the other side as violations […]...

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How Does International Law Assess the Legitimacy of Attacks on Dual-use infrastructure Targets?/ Maryam Abedi

Dual-use infrastructure is precisely the gray area of international humanitarian law; because it has neither an independent definition in treaties nor an absolute prohibition. Therefore, its definition must be sought within legal texts. In international law, the term “dual-use infrastructure” is not used directly, but its definition can be inferred from Article 52, paragraph 2, […]...

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From Missiles to Plastic: The Continuation of War in Everyday Life/ Ali Kalaei

Wars do not end after they are over. This sentence may seem somewhat strange because, naturally, once a war ends, it should become part of memory. But what happens in reality is not like that. Wars sometimes continue for ordinary people in a country through refrigerators going off, reduced water pressure in homes, the rising […]...

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The Dispute over Dual-Use Infrastructure in the Iran, Israel, and U.S. War/ Sonia Saadat

The patterns of conflict and strategic transformations in the international system over recent decades have undergone a fundamental metamorphosis that challenges the traditional concept of war. Modern conflicts are no longer limited to direct and classical confrontation between armed forces on front lines. In the contemporary era, technological advancement and societies’ deep structural dependence on […]...

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The City on the Battlefield: Human Shield or the Reality of Modern Societies?/ Hermineh Hourdad

In recent years, alongside the expansion of military conflicts in the Middle East, this question has repeatedly been raised: does the Islamic Republic of Iran deliberately use people as “human shields,” or is what we are witnessing the product of the complex structure of modern societies and the concentration of infrastructure in cities? This question […]...

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The long-term costs of destroying dual-use infrastructure/ Fereshteh Goli

Before addressing the main subject of this note, it is better to offer a definition of dual-use infrastructure. Although no clear and direct definition has been provided for “dual-use industries and infrastructure,” based on general concepts and the use of this term in texts related to security and economics, it can be said that dual-use […]...

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A Comparative Review of the Conflicts Between the New Law Intensifying Punishment for Espionage and the Fundamental Rights of the People/ Iman Soleimani

The law titled “Intensifying Punishment for Espionage and Cooperation with the Zionist Regime and Hostile Countries Against National Security and Interests” (approved by Parliament in Mehr 1404 and confirmed by the Guardian Council) is among the Islamic Republic’s recent security laws, prescribing heavy punishments such as execution and full confiscation of property for a wide […]...

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From the Filtering of Telegram to “Pro Internet” / Amir Aghaei

The Islamic Republic is breaking many negative records in the field of digital repression. Iranians, during perhaps one of the most turbulent periods in their history — from the start of the 12-day war to the Dey protests and after that the 40-day war, which it is still not clear has completely ended or not […]...

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