The History of Student Movements in Iran from the Constitutional Revolution to Today

Three schoolgirls in their school uniforms walk hand in hand, shaking their headscarves and shouting, “Women, life, freedom.” This image has become familiar in recent months in Iran; it started with the death of Mahsa (Jina) Amini and has spread to the streets, universities, and schools. But aside from the numerous questions and answers about the recent movement in Iran, what stands out the most is the presence of students from different age groups. Although students and children under the age of 18 were also killed in the November 1998 protests, it can be said that for the first time in forty-four years, the school grounds have become a scene of protest during class hours. This report takes a look at the history of student movements in Iran and portrays the role of students in social and political activities.

From the tobacco crisis to the constitutional revolution.

The student movement in Iran began with the establishment of the first modern Iranian school, Darolfonoon. Eight years after the founding of this school, the first graduates entered the social and political arena of the country, bringing with them a desire for renewal. In the first decade of Darolfonoon’s activity, all students had to receive the approval of Naser al-Din Shah. (1) Students were chosen from the nobility and courtiers of that time, but contrary to what the Shah thought, many of them became critics of the situation and government after being exposed to the academic environment of Darolfonoon, and only a few of them were employed by the court.

Fifteen years after the establishment of Darolfonoon, the Rashidiyeh school in Tabriz, Hashemiyeh in Kermanshah, and Shokatiyeh in Birjand were launched, schools that played an important role in advancing the constitutional movement. The first major protest movement of Iranian modern school students took shape in 1270. When Talbot obtained the exclusive right to distribute and issue tobacco for fifty years, the market in Shiraz, which was a major tobacco-growing region, was closed. (2) Newly graduated students and intellectuals from Darolfonoon were able to spread this news to the markets of Tehran, Qazvin, Isfahan, Tabriz, Mashhad, Yazd, and Kermanshah using the new telegraph network, and a nationwide market strike was organized with the help of students from the higher school. After the nationwide strike, street protests against the tobacco monopoly began, and the educated class,

After the tobacco crisis, Naser al-Din Shah banned the growth of Dar al-Funun and the establishment of new schools. At the same time, a religious group set fire to the Rashidiya School in Tabriz and the Shah remained silent in the face of this event. Five years later, Naser al-Din Shah was killed and with the arrival of Mozaffar al-Din Shah, the policy of oppression changed. The new Shah, who was enamored with Western liberal policies, reduced the security and military presence, lifted the travel ban, and allowed for the formation of trade and educational associations. A group of intellectuals in Tehran formed the “Society of Knowledge” and with their collection of books, established the first national library in Iran. The Society of Knowledge, which had the support of the conservative clergy, was able to launch fifty-seven private high schools in Tehran in a short period of time. The political changes led to the formation of five important secret revolutionary organizations

Each of these five groups played a major role in the Constitutional Revolution, but all members of the Revolutionary Committee were familiar with Western civilization through Darolfonoon and in connection with students. This group had more communication with the higher school than other revolutionary organizations. Haj Mirza Yahya Dowlatabadi, one of the prominent leaders of the new education movement, and Ali-Qoli Khan Sardar Asad Bakhtiari were active in this committee, which after its formation, established a school in Isfahan to study the “Advantages of Constitutionalism and Disadvantages of Despotism”. On the other hand, Tabriz intellectuals, with the efforts of Mirza Hassan Rashidi, also launched the Rashidiye School in another building, and in this way, students and students took part in part of the Constitutional Movement.

In 1906, ten years after the death of Naser al-Din Shah, Bibi Khanum Estarabadi, who was popular in the Shah’s court, founded the first modern girls’ school in Tehran, called the School for Girls. The establishment of this school coincided with the Constitutional Revolution. Traditional and religious groups attacked the school and destroyed it. The country was in chaos and street protests were intensifying. In one of these protests, a student was killed, and people marched from Tehran’s bazaar to the Jameh Mosque to mourn the student’s death. Eventually, the Cossacks killed twenty-two of the protesters. After this incident, prominent clerics, including Tabatabai and Behbahani, fled to Qom for refuge. Two members of the secret society prepared a refuge in the British embassy and asked merchants to set up tents in the embassy’s courtyard. In less than a week, over five hundred tents were set up in the embassy. One

Six months after the revolution and the establishment of the Shura Council, one hundred active publications were launched in Iran, with students making up a part of the writers for these publications. Among them, one graduate of Darolfonoon named Mirza Jahangir Khan Surasrafil, with the help of Mirza Ali Akbar Khan Ghazvini (Dehkoda), launched the Surasrafil newspaper. Mirza Jahangir Khan had joined the secret society of socialists during his final years of study, and had started his fight against tyranny during his time as a student. Surasrafil was one of the publications that printed articles from students and graduates of enlightened schools in Iran, and promoted the Constitutional Movement. The movement continued, and protests and strikes increased with the internal war. New parties were formed, and every day more people joined the constitutionalists until in June 1908, the then king closed down the parliament, killed Jahangir Khan Surasra

Darolfonoon is not only the first high school, but also considered the first university in Iran. The education of specialized courses such as medicine, music, and environmental painting had transformed this school into a more university-like environment than ever before, although elementary and general courses were also held in this school. Therefore, the activities of students and graduates of Darolfonoon cannot be simply categorized as student or high school activities. This school, before the emergence of modern schools in the form of elementary, high school, and university, was the first place of modern education in Iran and has played a significant role in political and social movements in the past hundred years.

The spread of the Mass Party among students

After the formation of the National Council, the path to establishing modern schools became more open than before. The second council, which had been formed with great effort, helped in building new schools for girls. With the influence of the 1917 Russian Revolution on Iran, socialist parties emerged and the issue of education became a focus for the masses. The Iranian Socialist Party emerged on the brink of the new century, and from within the Iranian Democratic Party in Azerbaijan, they opened offices in major cities such as Rasht, Isfahan, and Tabriz. They also started the Women’s Patriotic Association and formed a literacy committee. Mandatory education for all elementary children, education for women, and the prohibition of child labor were among the demands of this party, which made it popular among young people, especially students. The party quickly gained a presence in schools and promoted the awareness and literacy movement through students in private schools in Tehran and Tabriz. Meanwhile, the communist faction was also active in Tehran and,

Reza Khan, five years after the coup of 1299, was able to overthrow the Qajar monarchy and sit on the throne himself by infiltrating the parliament. As a result, from the sixth National Consultative Assembly onwards, he came under the control and command of the new king. One of his actions was to dissolve all associations, parties, and unions. The communist faction, which had gained popularity among students, was also severely suppressed and dissolved. However, the first Pahlavi king, alongside the severe suppression and formation of a new army, turned to civil and social reforms. From 1304 to 1320, the annual enrollment rate in schools increased twelve-fold. More than 1,400 modern elementary schools were established, all of which were under the supervision of the Ministry of Education. Before Reza Khan’s accession to the throne, Iran had only 63 high schools, which had increased to 351 by 1320.

During the previous government, there were six modern and non-religious institutions of higher education in the fields of medicine, agriculture, education, law, literature, and political science. Pahlavi integrated all of them and formed the University of Tehran, and until 1934, five new faculties of dentistry, pharmacy, veterinary medicine, fine arts, and sciences were added to it. As a result, after fifteen years, the educational society of Iran multiplied several times, and it was at this point that the student and university movements became separate.

The student movement during the Qajar period was dependent on teachers and students who were studying in higher education schools. Elementary schools, high schools, and foreign missionary schools that followed modern education were only present in big cities and their number did not exceed five hundred schools. However, they were directly connected to Darolfonoon School and intellectuals, which allowed political parties like the Communist faction to have influence among them. After the rise of Reza Mirpanj and the dissolution and severe suppression of these parties, political and party activities were also suspended in schools. However, in September 1320, after the resignation of Reza Shah, the Tudeh Party began its activities. It was the first party that greatly influenced the organization of youth in schools and universities. In September 1326, more than forty percent of the party members were students and high school students. Mass students were responsible for teaching illiterate people how to read and write, providing them with books, reading party publications to the public

In the 20th decade, political students were more inclined towards the Tudeh party; although the ideas of constitutional parties were still prevalent in schools, after the communist faction, the Tudeh party was the only one that organized political activities for students in schools. These students were actively involved in organizing street gatherings, distributing statements, and helping to organize teacher strikes. The influence of the Tudeh party and the organization of large demonstrations, especially in the oil industry, led to its suppression. The government dealt a severe blow to the Tudeh party, especially its provincial branches and affiliated unions and armed rebels, but did not completely dissolve it; instead, it allowed the central organization of the party to hold non-street gatherings and publish newspapers and to remain active among students, women, and intellectuals. This caused the student branch of the party not only to survive but also to continue more actively and, of course, in a more secretive manner.

Students in the July 31 uprising

The 30th decade began with the premiership of Mosaddegh. The National Front party gained power and had found supporters among the masses in schools and high schools. Students in public and private high schools in many major cities were leading political discussions, distributing statements, and using their days off to promote literacy in surrounding villages. The issue of nationalizing the oil industry had become a hot topic in the parliament, government, and on the streets. The public was strongly in favor of Mosaddegh. People had hope in the prime minister’s reforms and supported him and his party. This time, the masses of students were supporting the National Front students, and the unity between these two groups was not only evident in schools but also in the political arena. In July 1952, when Mosaddegh was trying to appoint a war minister against the Shah’s wishes and the Shah refused his proposed candidate, Mosaddegh resigned and unrest escalated. Students helped with the formation of strikes

After the uprising of July 21, Mossadegh gained more power than ever before and stood against the Shah, the monarchists, and the British. He nationalized the oil and began reforms. During this time, the political atmosphere in schools was also heated. Not only the Tudeh Party or the National Front, but also Islamic political parties had emerged in schools. The killing of a student during the July 21 uprising had sparked a political atmosphere in major cities, especially in Tehran. Mossadegh continued with his reforms, but due to delegating tasks to non-religious individuals and his support for women’s suffrage, traditional and religious groups did not support him as they did before. When the Shah and his military, with the help of the British and American governments, staged a coup on August 19, the Tudeh Party called for a rally, and many of the protesters that day were students. After Mossadegh’s surrender and his attempt to dis

After the 1332 coup, an iron curtain was drawn around the political arena of Iran. Opposing leaders were separated from their followers, fighters from the masses, and political parties from their social bases. As a result, Iranian society, which had been embroiled in political turmoil for thirteen years, remained quiet and calm for the next twenty-four years, except for a short period in 1363-1369 when social struggle turned into social engineering. Suppression and dissolution of parties continued, and the Tudeh Party, which had the most influence in schools, gradually lost its popularity among young people and students due to government propaganda and the promotion of religious ideas. Instead, Islamic groups emerged among students, although other leftist parties also operated underground in schools and educational institutions. However, after the coup until the early 1350s, no party was able to gain widespread support among students like the Tudeh Party.

The 1957 Revolution in Schools

The 1950s began with the expansion of activities of underground revolutionary groups. Parties that had been active in the underground layers of society for about twenty years gradually became apparent. Students also secretly engaged in activities during these years. After the suppression of the 1342 uprising and the identification of hidden parties by the Savak, the crackdown intensified. The youth were encouraged to engage in armed struggle after the neglect of the two major parties, Tudeh and the National Front, and the first Marxist and Islamic guerrilla groups were formed. In 1343, fifty-seven students and high school students were arrested by Savak on charges of buying weapons and forming a secret group called the “Islamic Nation Party”.

Masoud Ahmadzadeh was one of the students who was active in the National Front party during high school. He had established the Muslim Student Club and was able to establish connections with students from other schools in the party. Amir Parviz Pouyan also joined the National Front during high school. After entering university, these two, along with Bijan Jazani, Ali Akbar Farahani, Mohammad Ashtiani, and Hamid Ashraf, founded the Fadaiyan Organization. Hamid Ashraf, the youngest member of the group, had been active in Khalil Maleki’s party during high school. The Fadaiyan Organization, which adopted this name in 1971, was the first political group to have a widespread presence in schools and was able to attract students. Alongside this organization, the Islamic Mujahideen Organization, which attracted religious students close to the National Front, became the second most popular group among young people, especially students.

The first Cherik student was killed in the Black Claw epic in 1349; also eight students were killed in the seven years leading up to the 1357 Revolution in street protests, one of whom was a member of the Fadaiyan organization. Cherik organizations continued their activities until the mid-1950s, but the government was able to suppress them to a large extent. No Cherik operations were carried out by these groups in the years leading up to the Revolution. From 1352, with the increase in economic inflation, the severe suppression of protesters and the creation of political turmoil increased dissatisfaction and political actions spread throughout society again.

On November 28, 1977, ten thousand students and pupils gathered at the night of poetry at the Iranian Writers Association at Sharif Industrial University. The police tried to disperse the crowd, and a group of young people chanted slogans against the government and clashed with the police, resulting in the death of one student and seventy injured. For ten days after this incident, Tehran was involved in student protests that also encouraged students to protest. Street protests continued until the 40th day of the massacre of the people of Qom, where a high school student was killed by a police officer in Tabriz. After the death of this student, the uprising in Tabriz intensified and lasted for two days, until the government used tanks and military helicopters to kill about a hundred people and calm down Tabriz. Forty days later, large nationwide strikes accompanied street protests. Students in major cities were on strike in elementary and high schools, and were absent from schools and actively participated in demonstrations. Large factories

On November 4, 1978, student activists organized the largest student gathering at Tehran University. Most high schools in Tehran joined this call and people also gathered in front of Tehran University to support the students. After the formation of the gathering, government officials attacked the students and one student was killed during the clash, with many others injured. However, the Islamic Republic has always tried to confiscate the November 4 event in favor of its ruling ideology. In the months leading up to the revolution, students played an active and prominent role in the streets and in the formation of student strikes and school closures.

“Scream, life, freedom after forty years of silence”

After the 1357 Revolution and the Cultural Revolution, and the formation of the Supreme Council of the Cultural Revolution, schools and universities underwent major changes. Schools were no longer subject to the influence and expansion of political parties like in the past. There was no organization among students and teachers and students were not able to use the school environment as a widespread and extensive scene for protests like in the past. Students and children were killed in street protests, such as in the November 1998 uprising, but their voices were not heard in schools. The only organization that was allowed to operate in schools after the revolution was the Islamic Student Association, which was also unable to attract students with its targeted and Islamic activities and was almost shut down. The Student Basij became the only ideological institution of the government that was active in schools, but it only had acceptance among the ruling social base.

But with the killing of Mahsa Amini and the intensification of street protests and the majority of universities joining the “Women, Life, Freedom” movement, after forty-four years, the school regained a new spirit. Students who were under the most intense ideological and Islamic teachings, took to the streets and sacrificed their lives; they burned their textbooks in schools, tore down pictures of Ayatollah Khamenei and Ayatollah Khomeini, and joined the fight.

Now students in Tehran, Sanandaj, Saqqez, Marivan, Kermanshah, Shiraz, Mashhad, Qods City, Karaj and Ardabil have not only turned their schools into political spaces, but have also broken the forty-year-old discipline imposed by the Islamic Republic government. Today’s students, without any political experience, party or organization, have joined the front lines of the freedom movement. From September 17th to October 17th, nine student children were killed in recent protests by the government. The student movement has become more active than ever before in these forty-four years, returning to the streets and disrupting the military school system. Whatever the outcome of this movement may be, it undoubtedly belongs to a generation that has shown its courage in schools and universities to the world.

Notes:

1- Kousaravi, Ahmad, The Constitutional History of Iran, Volume 1, Amir Kabir Publications, Tehran: 1357.

2- Abrahamian, Yerevan, Iran between two revolutions, Golmohammadi, Ahmad, Fattahi, Mohammad Ibrahim, Nashrani, Tehran: 1395.

3- Same 1.

4- At dawn, Badr al-Muluk, Iranian woman from the Constitutional Revolution to the White Revolution, Ibn Sina, Tehran: 1347.

5- The same 2.

6- Same.

7- Same.

8- Same.

9- The statistics of the victims of recent protests from September 5th, 2022 to October 17th, 2022, by Hrana News Agency.