When we sit down with our old memories – especially if those memories are of smoke and fumes – sometimes we hear things that are hard to believe. The stories are also full of the movement of opium by citizens and opium coupons that were distributed before the revolution in February 1979. Something that was once again brought up fourteen years after the revolution. In the years 1988-1991, a series called “The Mirror of Lessons” was broadcasted on the first channel of the Islamic Republic of Iran, which dealt with the problem of drugs in Iran. The series was known for its famous characters, “Atqi” and “Ali”. At one time, he was a criminal addict and now he is considered sick. When did this addiction finally spread in Iran and where can we see references to its use in our history? The discovery of drugs dates back to four thousand years ago historically. But what about Iran?

Hafez Shirazi, known as the tongue of the unseen, a poet of the 8th century AH, has a couplet that says:

If you hurt someone, then someone else will be the remedy.

And if you give poison, someone else will give the antidote.

The reference here is to opium, a narcotic substance that provides relief and calmness. Opium is a dark, bitter, addictive substance mainly derived from the sap of unripe poppy plants. The use of opium and other drugs has a history in Iran. In medicine, it was used as a pain reliever, but some also became addicted to it. However, the prevalence of this practice can be traced back to the Safavid era. This was a time when poppy cultivation expanded and Shah Tahmasb Safavi accepted the use of opium, bhang (cannabis), and hashish as a norm in Iran, spreading it among the people, coffee shops, and the Safavid court. But when Shah Abbas Safavi came to power, a policy of restricting opium use in Iran began. In 1005 AH (976 CE), he issued a decree to ban opium. However, this was not very successful, and poppy cultivation continued in

The production and consumption policies of narcotics in Iran continued during the Qajar era with the support of the government. Opium cultivation saw an unprecedented expansion during this time, to the point where Iranian merchants opened buying and selling offices in Hong Kong and Shanghai. This trade became so lucrative that in 1278 AH, Iran’s income from opium sales reached 1.9 million tomans, while the total exports of Iran were 7.4 million tomans. In 1297, poppy cultivation was developed and the production of opium reached 12,000 tons in 1302. However, after the Constitutional Revolution, the constitutionalists attempted to find a different policy and approach in this area.

The Mujahideen were concerned about the widespread use of drugs, so they passed the first law to combat addiction in the first Majlis of the Constitutional Revolution. According to this law, ration cards were issued for addicts and even a tax was imposed on the consumption of opium. Up to 8% of the government’s income was provided from the sale of opium and its tax. However, this law could not prevent the high consumption of opium in Iran at that time. The demand for drugs continued to increase and illegal buying and selling of it continued with force. Later, the “State Opium Institute”, which officially held the monopoly on the sale of government opium, began operating under the management of an Englishman. (3).

In Iran until 1320, the discovery and sale of opium was carried out by the government. But after that, the government’s legal efforts to combat addiction and the issue of drugs intensified in Iran. In 1324, the government submitted a bill to ban poppy cultivation to the National Assembly, which was approved. The law not only banned poppy cultivation, but also required addicts to quit drug use within six months. In 1331, the “Law on the Prohibition of Production, Purchase, Sale, and Consumption of Alcoholic Beverages, Opium, and its Derivatives” was passed by the National Assembly. In 1334, the “Law on the Prohibition of Poppy Cultivation and the Use of Opium” was passed, and four years later, in 1338, the “Law on Amending the Law on the Prohibition of Poppy Cultivation and the Use of Opium” was passed, which also included the death

After the 1957 revolution and during the new regime, the policies of the Pahlavi regime in dealing with the issue of drug trafficking and counterfeiting were called into question. The new government even claimed that during the reign of the Pahlavi kings, by cracking down on small-time drug dealers, the major smugglers were left untouched and the profits from this activity were deposited into the pockets of the royal family and their close associates. (5)

With the February 1979 Revolution and fundamental changes in the political system in Iran during the transitional period, government supervision over the drug trade decreased. As a result, with the increase in production and distribution of drugs, poppy fields in some regions of the country became one of the main sources of income for farmers. However, in 1979, the fight against drugs began in the new government and expanded after several months. The clergy and legal and judicial authorities had taken control, and Sheikh Sadegh Khalkhali was appointed as the head of the Drug Enforcement Administration. During this period, Khalkhali’s actions were harsh and extrajudicial against addicts and drug traffickers, resulting in many arrests, trials, confiscations of property, and executions. The accused were sent to prisons and special courts. On April 30, 1979, the interim government, upon the recommendation of the Ministry of Health and Welfare, approved regulations for the eradication of opium and narcotic

However, the aggressive and violent behavior of the revolutionaries after the revolution towards the cycle of triac in the country also had its consequences. The main damage was the shift of consumers from triac to heroin. A sociological researcher has admitted in an interview that “the period of aggression led to a shift from triac to heroin. I noticed during my study on heroin users that many of them were drawn to heroin because of the intensity of the effects. When they went to triac dealers, they were told that it has no smell, no trace, and no problems; you can use it anytime and anywhere, and you can carry it in any amount, and it’s easier to hide. The management’s approach was that with this behavior, the problem would be eradicated and the issue would be completely resolved.” (6).

The policy of the interim government has been different. During that time, in relation to drug addicts, the policy of distributing the quota of opium among them was adopted. On September 3, 1979, in response to pressure from 170,000 registered drug addicts who were unable to access opium, the Cabinet passed a resolution to sell opium to addicts. According to this resolution, the Opium Trading Organization, affiliated with the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, was authorized to sell opium from various regions of the country to addicted patients who were eligible to receive a quota of opium. These patients must have a card and a coupon issued by the Ministry of Health and Welfare, and the opium must be sold in accordance with relevant regulations, at a price of 30 rials per gram.

However, this policy also faced problems such as the lack of sales of opium by farmers (instead, they sold it to smugglers for higher profits), government corruption, and the distribution of quotas to addicts. Finally, in July 1980, the entire government opium sales policy came to an end, poppy cultivation was banned throughout Iran, and drug use was recognized as a crime.

In Azar 1359 (December 1980), Sadeq Khalkhali also stepped down from his responsibility in the field of drugs in the country. During his time, the issue of torture of addicts was raised, which he and Colonel Bakhtegan, the former head of the Drug Enforcement Administration, denied. However, in December 1359, the then religious ruler of the Revolutionary Court and also the representative of the Revolutionary Prosecutor General confirmed in separate statements the occurrence of illegal and contrary acts during Khalkhali’s tenure. In his resignation speech in Azar 1359 (December 1980) in the parliament, Khalkhali refers to the executioner role that was given to him and says that the attackers consider it a bravery for themselves. (7)(8) Opponents of the government, including leftist organizations opposed to the regime, have also reported numerous executions under the pretext of drugs during Khalkhali’s time. In the fourth of Tir

With the start of the Iran-Iraq war, the control of drugs, like all economic, social, political, and cultural matters, was affected. Due to Iraq’s attack in the west and south of the country and the concentration of military forces in these two regions, controlling the eastern borders of the country became more difficult. In November 1981, a special group called the “Central Anti-Drug Headquarters” was formed. This headquarters was under the supervision of the central committee and operated with the permission of the central committee and the prosecutor’s office. The main policy during this period was a strict approach to dealing with drugs. In 1984, it was decided that the uninhabited islands in the Persian Gulf would be used as a place for exiling addicts. The island of “Faroo” was chosen for this purpose. The island was not escapable and it was decided that after the addicts were settled on this uninhabited island, they would take care of their daily affairs

In the final year of the war, the law on combating drugs was finally approved by the Expediency Discernment Council, and this law, along with its amendments, is currently being implemented. According to this law, a Drug Control Headquarters was formed, headed by the President. This headquarters has been working on policies related to rehabilitation, treatment, care for addicts, prevention of drug use, and anti-drug propaganda, as well as controlling and combating drug trafficking. It was announced that addicts were required to seek treatment within six months of the law being passed in 1988. In the early 1970s, with the attention of scientific and academic institutions to the issue of addiction and criticism of past policies, the need for more focus on demand reduction programs was raised. Finally, after a process in 1994, the first national program for prevention, treatment, and rehabilitation of drug abuse was developed by the country’s Welfare Organization. In 1997, the Expediency Disc

In recent decades, there have been many violent clashes with addicts. From the attack on the White Land neighborhood (known as the Island) in 1380 to the Island camp in the 1960s in a location between Bandar Lengeh, Kish, Abu Musa, Sirri, Shurabad, Kahrizak, and Sefid Sang, Band-e Do Alif, Tel-e Siah, Shurabad, Qazl Hassar, Pasargard, and other camps, (9) rehabilitation centers and prison camps have been established to combat addiction and the problem of drugs in the country, using various methods and in many cases inhumane treatment against addicts or drug traffickers. However, it seems that the policies of the Islamic Republic have had no effect on reducing this problem in Iran. According to a report by Amnesty International in June 2023, the number of executions of drug-related prisoners in Iran has tripled. On the other hand

No one expects the issue of drugs in Iran to suddenly be eradicated. But it is expected that there should be some improvement in the results of government policies in this area. Addiction continues to consume the lives of Iranians and it is like a black hole that drains their youth. If in the time of Saadi, opium was used as a painkiller, today, the use of drugs such as synthetic and psychotropic substances, amphetamines, and others, have become a pain in themselves. A pain that requires a solution and effective measures from the government. A solution that is currently scarce in Iran. The country has been left to its own devices and perhaps it is time for people to think about their own situation.

Notes:

1- Ganji, Ali (Colonel), The History of Drugs in Iran: Social, Economic, and Political Geography of Drugs, Part One, Kayhan Newspaper, 27 Farvardin 1387.

2- Qajar Dynasty and Opium Cultivation, World of Economy, 25 Farvardin 1389.

3- Madani Ghahfarokhi, Saeed, Nakjabad government distribution of drugs, Persian BBC, 3 August 2017.

4- The law of fighting against drugs over time, Shafaghna, the international base for Shia news cooperation, 28 Dey month 1394.

5- A look at the Pahlavi regime’s policy on “drugs” / the royal smuggling of “opium”; from Tehran to Zurich!, Mizan News Agency, 20 Bahman 1397.

6- Opium erosion, a review of the fight against drugs from the Constitutional Revolution to today, Tomorrow’s Trade Weekly, 7 August 2017.

7- Ayatollah Khalkhali resigned from the presidency of the Anti-Drug Headquarters, Khabar Online, 18 December 1980.

8- Imposed war and the issue of addiction, Rasht, 15 Shahrivar 1397.

9- Kianpour, Amir, Islamic Republic of Camps: Cuts from Four Decades of Holy Struggle Against Addiction, 6 Dey 1394.

10- Execution of prisoners with drug offenses in Iran has “tripled”, BBC Persian, 12 Khordad 1402.

11- The Secretary General of the Drug Control Headquarters responded; What impact does the ban on poppy cultivation in Afghanistan have on our country?, ISNA, 1 Khordad 1401.

12- Secretary General of the Anti-Narcotics Headquarters: 92% of the world’s opium seizures are related to Iran, Fararu, 6 Azar month 1402.

13- Secretary General of the Anti-Drug Headquarters: 20% of the consumed drugs in the country are industrial, IRNA, 4 Dey 1401.

14- The age of addiction in Iran has reached 10 to 12 years, Hamshahri Online, 31 Farvardin 1401.

15- The situation of “prevalence” and “age” of drug use in Iran/ Determining the fate of addiction treatment drugs, ISNA, 4 Dey 1401.

16- Afghanistan is no longer the world’s largest producer of drugs, Fars News Agency, 21 December 1402 (Islamic calendar).