In contemporary criminal law systems, the crime of espionage has always been classified among the most serious offenses against national security, because it concerns attacks on the fundamental interests of the state and the disclosure of information that may endanger the country’s political, military, or diplomatic security. However, the gravity of this crime has never […]...

In wartime conditions, the question of respect for human rights is always raised as one of the fundamental challenges. It is a challenge in which the boundary between security necessities and human rights obligations becomes extremely narrow and slippery. Historical experience has shown that in times of crisis, states are more inclined than ever to […]...

In contemporary international law, the situation of prisoners in situations of armed conflict is one of the areas that is particularly sensitive in international legal systems. This sensitivity stems from the fact that prisoners, as individuals who are completely at the disposal and control of governmental institutions, practically lack the ability to effectively protect their […]...

The recent protests in Iran, accompanied by widespread, violent and unprecedented repression, have once again exposed the established patterns of human rights violations by the government. Along with the killing of protesters, mass arrests and the imposition of severe security restrictions, the broadcast of forced confessions by state media has become a central tool for […]...

Public trust in the judiciary is one of the fundamental indicators of achieving justice, and its absence paves the way for the emergence of personal justice-seeking. Personal justice-seeking is a behavior in which individuals, instead of referring to legal authorities, take matters into their own hands to obtain rights and punish violators. Such an approach […]...

Repentance (tawba) has long been regarded in Islamic jurisprudence as a moral and devotional concept, and over time, it has also gained a significant role in criminal proceedings. Islamic jurisprudence, by linking the realm of religious ethics with the domain of punishment, has created an institution in which inner transformation can lead to the annulment […]...

In recent decades, the country’s pension funds—especially the Civil Servants Pension Fund, the Social Security Organization, and the Armed Forces Pension Fund—have faced a deep structural crisis. This crisis stems from chronic imbalance between resources and expenditures, unprofessional policymaking, and weak corporate governance in managing these institutions. The share of public budget contributions to cover […]...

In the legal system of the Islamic Republic of Iran, qisas (retaliatory justice) is not only prominently featured in Book Three of the Islamic Penal Code (2013), but its procedural structure and associated privileges are also legally codified. These include defining the scope of cases eligible for qisas, conditions for the equivalence of the weapon […]...

In the month of Khordad of this year, Iran witnessed one of the shortest and most expensive military confrontations, known as the 12-day war. This war not only targeted vital infrastructure of Iran, including sensitive nuclear facilities and defense systems, but also exposed deep-rooted weaknesses in the structure of the Islamic Republic’s defense and security. […]...

Following the twelve-day conflict between the Islamic Republic of Iran and the State of Israel, the issue of civilian protection during armed conflict—one of the fundamental and imperative principles of international humanitarian law—has gained renewed urgency and relevance. The nature of modern warfare, often marked by aerial and missile attacks on urban areas, places civilian […]...