In the history of social transformations, student movements have been recognized as one of the main factors of major changes. The enthusiasm and passion of students for supporting social justice, equality, and structural reforms have clearly shown that they are a powerful force in shaping a more just and progressive society. The political actions of students throughout the past century have become a prominent feature of politics around the world. Students have played a role in various issues, from anti-colonial and anti-war movements to civil rights, democracy, resistance against neoliberalism and economic exploitation, fighting against racism and sexism, and even issues related to climate change. However, student actions and activities are often seen by political elites and official authorities as “youthful mischief.” This essay takes a look at some pivotal moments in the history of student movements and examines the historical significance and educational potential in advancing brighter futures.

Important Moments in the History of Student Movements.

France 1968.

In 1968, student protests occurred in many countries including Japan, Sweden, and former Czechoslovakia. In Paris, students took to the streets in protest against the lack of budget for higher education and also against conservative norms. After World War II, French universities received a high number of requests for continued education, leading to an increase in enrollment rates throughout the 1960s. However, from the students’ perspective, the government’s budget was not considered sufficient for the number of students. At the same time, the younger generation in France demanded social and cultural changes. On university campuses, students challenged the structures of social hierarchy and gender roles with their slogans. Their ideas challenged conservative beliefs in French society, which were considered socially acceptable. As a result of this dissatisfaction, in early May 1968, students occupied the Sorbonne University, which was part of the University of Paris at the time. The occupation of the Sorbonne intensified the protests and led to increased clashes with

2. Soviet 1976.

In 1976, on the other side of the Earth, students and scholars in Soweto, South Africa, reacted to the government’s decisions regarding educational issues by protesting. The Soweto protests trace back to the passing of the Bantu Education Act in 1953, which increased government control over the South African education system. This law allowed for the continuation and deepening of apartheid policies by the government.

After the implementation of the Bantu Education Act, the government in 1976 approved Afrikaans, a language mainly used by descendants of European colonizers, as the official language of education. This caused dissatisfaction among students, as many of them were unfamiliar with Afrikaans and saw it as a representation of the apartheid regime, as it was primarily spoken by supporters of the National Party in South Africa.

On June 16 of that year, middle and high school students protested due to the government’s decisions – which according to some estimates involved around ten thousand people. However, what started as a peaceful protest turned into a battle against the people within a few hours. Sifiso Mxolisi Ndlovu, a history professor at the University of South Africa, says: “The police were ordered to shoot to kill; to them, law and order had to be maintained at any cost.” On this day, several protesters (mostly young students) were killed or injured. In the following months, students in other cities went on strike in solidarity with the Soweto students, leading to further protests against the national government and its apartheid policies.

3. Beijing 1989.

Finally, the third case of student protests in Beijing occurred in 1989. On June 4th, the armed forces of the government responded violently to the student protests in Tiananmen Square. In an interview with On Point, Zhou Fengsuo, one of the protesting students and a human rights activist, referred to these events as the “darkest moment in Chinese history.” While the exact number of casualties is unknown, estimates suggest that thousands of students and scholars were killed.

Before the protests and massacre in Tiananmen Square, periods of social and political unrest occurred in China. As the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) began the process of economic liberalization, Chinese citizens were hopeful for democratization and an increase in political and social freedom. However, no actions were taken by the party to increase transparency and political freedom, and corruption continued to be seen as a major issue in the country. Eventually, this led to students and other groups protesting through hunger strikes, occupying classrooms, and participating in public demonstrations against the Chinese Communist Party.

More than 30 years have passed since the events of Tiananmen Square, yet there are still many concerns about freedom of speech and democracy for Chinese citizens. Reports also show that the Chinese government has censored information about this event in textbooks and on the internet, causing many young generations in China to be unaware of the massacre in Tiananmen Square.

Educational system, student movements, and struggle for power.

Educational systems are one of the main fields of social and political conflicts, as they have a direct relationship with processes of socialization and acculturation. Universities and schools, as centers where collective identity and knowledge are constructed, have become highly politicized and are influenced by various and sometimes conflicting interests. The determination of curriculum content, the employment of teachers and professors, and the allocation of budgets are all issues with social and political dimensions that constantly occupy the minds of students and pupils.

In addition, educational systems are heavily protected by elites and those in power as important arenas for governments and policymakers. Any attempt to reform these systems by student movements is essentially an attempt to reclaim institutional power. These systems often play a conservative role in society. Schools and universities – as places for social reproduction – tend to favor maintaining the existing order. This conservatism is evident in history; as educational systems often resist change and are reluctant to accept reforms. Most of these systems are within the framework of government structures and are protected by bureaucratic and supervisory mechanisms by elites. Therefore, changing these systems by social movements that arise from the foundations of society is very challenging.

However, it is this role of reproduction of education in society that turns educational systems into an important field for student movements. Students often see educational programs and policies as tools for perpetuating inequalities and injustices. For example, feminist scholars have clearly shown in different generations that higher education systems, by excluding women from important university positions and specific fields, reinforce patriarchal power and the privileges that come with it. Despite these challenges, it is crucial to analyze the ways in which social movements use to change and shape educational systems. In the following, four different paths of student activism in the field of education will be examined.

1. Intra-institutional student behavior.(

Intra-institutional.

Intra-institutional refers to activities or processes that occur within an institution or organization, rather than involving external parties.)

“Internal pathways” of student action are formed when the goals of student movements are systematically manifested within the educational system through individuals such as teachers or professors. These processes occur when internal actors, such as teachers or students, design and implement social movement programs in specific areas within the educational system. These individuals are known as intermediaries who have the ability to mediate and strategically communicate between social movement programs (such as anti-war, anti-racism, feminism, etc.) on one hand, and the internal educational system (schools, classrooms, lectures, etc.) on the other. These intermediaries can leverage their internal position in schools or universities to introduce and implement various social movement programs within the educational system, for example by presenting topics such as environmental justice or fighting against racism as educational and research content.

2. Student Action “Binanahadi”.(

بین موسساتی

Inter-institutional)

The path of “intermediary” actions takes shape when actors engage in activities outside the institutional borders of the educational system in order to gain access. This method is particularly common among those who do not have a significant presence within the system and are often marginalized due to their identity or radical goals. These actions usually begin within social movement organizations in society and aim to gain a position of influence by infiltrating the system. Infiltration into the educational system occurs through two main paths: direct and indirect. The direct path involves direct confrontation and interaction with educational authorities to accept reforms, while the indirect path uses tools such as legal challenges or public pressure and media. Both paths are often intertwined. Examples of this type of action include the historic struggle and civil rights movement of African Americans for educational equality and the end of racial segregation in 1940s-1960s America. Infiltrating a racially discriminatory and protected educational system required creating disruptions and widespread pressure.

3. Student Action “Suggestion”

خارج از موسسه)

The action of “outside proposal” can include activities that begin outside of the university environment and have an indirect impact on the educational system. For example, educational programs that are launched independently from universities and address social issues such as racism and poverty are examples of these activities. These programs are usually designed in collaboration with students and professors, with the goal of engaging university members in social issues. These actions can lead to the creation of institutions that are close to universities and may be formally recognized or supported by universities. Some of these institutions operate in line with university activities and may even benefit from financial support from universities. These programs are usually more successful when they are not perceived as a threat by university authorities and are coordinated with existing university programs.

4. Student Action “Farahnadi”.(

پارا-موسساتی

Para-Institutional.)

The pathways of action in “franahadi” refer to activities that are created outside of existing educational systems and aim to develop alternative educational programs that operate parallel and critically towards established educational systems. These pathways typically involve the establishment of new schools and educational programs that align with goals such as social justice and environmental sustainability. For universities and students, franahadi pathways can include the creation of new educational programs and projects that operate independently from existing universities. These programs are often designed to address local and social needs and critique existing educational programs and policies. These types of actions often emerge in non-centralized educational systems, where there are more opportunities for the establishment and implementation of alternative programs. As a result, in recent years, the trend towards decentralization in educational systems has led to an increase in the number of such alternative programs and initiatives in universities and educational institutions.

Buttocks.

Historical experiences of student protests in France, Soweto, and Beijing show that student movements have always been at the intersection of history and social change. These movements, ranging from anti-elitist protests and demands for education to broader political and social struggles, have served as a driving force for fundamental changes in various societies. Students have continuously challenged established power and authority by occupying educational spaces and organizing street protests.

These events demonstrate that educational systems, as spaces for cultivation and development, play dual roles in societies. On one hand, they act as tools for preserving and reproducing existing social orders, and on the other hand, they serve as arenas for challenging and bringing about social changes. The various paths of student actions, including internal, interventional, external, and transformative paths, indicate the complexity and diversity of strategies that student movements employ to penetrate and influence educational systems.

Historical experiences remind us that student movements, despite institutional and resistance challenges they face, have always acted as a transformative force and catalyst for change in their societies. These movements have not only influenced educational structures, but also played a significant role in shaping social movements and political changes.

Sources.

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   لندن: روتلج
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   مقابله با اعتبار

   Challenging authority.

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   “جنجالی فرانسوی” translates to “Contentious French.”

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