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Goddess Amani

Since the late 20th century, studies on corruption have emerged in academic circles. The staggering cost of administrative and financial corruption in the world has led not only academic institutions, but also non-governmental organizations and civil society organizations that experienced significant growth in the 1990s, to pay attention to this issue. This has resulted in a social movement to hold political and financial leaders accountable for ethics, transparency, and social responsibility.

Researchers of corruption studies are of the belief that corruption in various areas has overall weakened democracy and civil society, increased government expenses, and made people cynical towards politics and those in power.

The cost of corruption can be highlighted in political, economic, social, and environmental sectors.

On a political level, corruption is one of the serious obstacles to democracy, power sharing, and rule of law. In societies with democratic values and structures that allow for accountability, corruption is less prevalent. On the other hand, when individuals use their positions for personal gain and relationships, corruption causes institutions and governments to lose their legitimacy.

The lack of independence in the judicial system in dealing with individuals involved in financial, administrative, or political corruption in society, the absence of monitoring mechanisms for government economic activities and their relationship with the private sector, reduces the cost of committing corruption and paves the way for its spread.

Furthermore, in the field of economic and financial corruption, the more centralized and top-down the economy is, and the more concentrated the economic and financial arteries are in government institutions, the greater the possibility of corruption on a macro level. The more “economic democracy” and independent judicial system there is, the less corruption occurs in society. Economically, corruption dissipates national capital and wealth. Uncommitted leaders spend rare national resources on projects that do not prioritize the interests of society, instead of allocating them to social services, healthcare, education, housing, and employment for citizens. As a result, corruption is one of the serious obstacles to economic development and a major barrier to implementing economic policies that benefit the entire society.

Furthermore, corruption has affected the social fabric of society and undermines people’s trust in political systems and leadership institutions.

Environmental analysis and degradation is another consequence of corrupt systems. The absence of laws and regulations or lack of enforcement leads to the exploitation of natural resources, which are considered as the capital of a country. These resources are misused and depleted without any control, and the very resources that we should protect for future generations are destroyed.

The cost of corruption in the world, although it cannot be accurately estimated, is staggering and alarming. A recent study estimated bribery at a global level to be between 1.5 to 2 trillion dollars, which is 2% of the world’s gross domestic product.

In any case, corruption is a phenomenon that is cross-cultural, systemic, and transnational; it has always existed in the history of human society and has been seen in all political systems. But what is important is the extent and strategies that enable a response to it.

United Nations Convention against Corruption

On October 31, 2003, a convention against corruption was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly. The provisions of this convention cover four areas: prevention, criminalization, international cooperation, and asset recovery. Member countries are held responsible for their special obligations and signing this convention commits them to its implementation.

This convention, which has 177 members and Iran has also joined, encompasses international standards not only for governments, but also for the private sector and its relationship with the government.

Since the United Nations does not have executive power, the signatures of governments on global conventions are the only powerful tool in the hands of civil society to hold governments accountable for their commitment to implementing these conventions. Otherwise, the provisions of these conventions will not reach their potential to improve and promote the well-being of human society.

Corruption and Gender.

One of the areas of focus in recent years in corruption studies is the relationship between corruption and gender. Questions such as whether corruption affects men and women equally, whether women experience and are exposed to different forms of corruption, whether women in positions of power in society, economy, and politics have a different approach towards corruption, and whether the answers to these questions can help in developing major policies in society and globally to combat corruption, are the main focus of these studies.

Regarding corruption and gender, research has been conducted that suggests women and men are affected by corruption in society in various ways, and the treatment of women and men in the realm of corruption – particularly financial corruption – is not equal.

It is clear that corruption, especially financial and political corruption, deprives citizens of their economic resources and societal wealth, causing the most damage to the poor who are on the margins of society. Women make up 70% of the world’s poor and as a result, corruption weighs heavily on their shoulders.

The discourse of poverty, corruption, and gender are absent in many studies and research on corruption, and in fact, one-fifth of the tools and indicators used to measure the level of corruption in different societies do not address the issues of poverty and women in their indicators.

Corruption is also a barrier to achieving gender equality, human rights, and human dignity for women. As a result, it is a serious obstacle to women’s access to their civil, social, and economic rights. Therefore, understanding the complex relationship between corruption and gender can also be a key to achieving gender equality.

Women are no longer considered only victims of corruption, but international organizations and civil society see them as part of the solution to the widespread phenomenon of corruption and its solutions.

The results of research by scholars and international indicators show that the political and economic participation of women and their active presence in social life are related to increased accountability and reduced levels of corruption. In fact, the countries at the top of the list of least corrupt countries, according to the 2015 report by Transparency International, are Denmark, Finland, Sweden, New Zealand, the Netherlands, and Norway. However, it should be noted that being ranked as a “clean” country in terms of fighting corruption does not mean that it is not involved in corruption outside its borders. Sweden is ranked third in terms of being a clean country, but the Finnish-Swedish company Telia Sonera, of which 37% belongs to Sweden, is accused of paying millions of dollars in bribes to obtain business contracts in Uzbekistan, which ranks 153 out of 180 countries in the world. (3).

Women and men also have different behaviors in terms of illegal and unethical behaviors and taking risks. (4) Anand Swamy’s research on corruption and gender suggests that women are less involved in giving and taking bribes compared to men. (5) And if they do get involved, they are involved in fewer transactions. This research was conducted on women in private sectors or women in managerial positions. (6).

These behavioral differences have social, cultural, and economic reasons. The fact that women take less risks is related to gender roles and responsibilities of caring for children and elderly. Also, due to their subordinate gender position, women have less motivation to engage in illegal and unethical behaviors and take risks in terms of losing their jobs.

Corruption in war zones.

Another discourse that can be mentioned is that research shows the level of corruption increases in societies involved in conflict and war. It is noteworthy that in the report of Transparency International, four of the 10 most corrupt countries are among the countries with the most conflicts.

In the 2015 Transparency International Index, South Sudan and Angola are ranked 163rd and 165th respectively, while Afghanistan is ranked 166th. These countries are among the 10 regions in the world that are involved in armed conflicts and are considered to be among the most corrupt countries in the world. Therefore, the idea that war-torn areas provide fertile ground for the growth and spread of corruption has been brought to the attention of analysts.

In this regard, the pressures and numerous violations of women’s human rights in conflict zones and the violence that women experience in various fields, coupled with the heavy burden of corruption and the relationship between corruption and gender, lead to women in conflict zones being doubly subjected to human rights violations. The discourse of corruption and war and its effects on women is a subset that has not yet been specifically addressed in corruption studies and deserves to be further examined.

Administrative corruption in Iran.

Iran has been ranked 130 out of 168 countries in the annual report of the International Transparency Organization on the Corruption Index. This organization also gives countries a score from 1 to 100, and Iran only received a score of 27 in 2015.

Financial corruption during the Islamic Republic era has surpassed even the time of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi’s monarchy. During the presidency of Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani, embezzlement of 123 billion tomans was unprecedented. However, during the presidency of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, the amount of financial corruption increased to 3 trillion tomans and recently reached a new record of 650 trillion tomans. According to the head of the judiciary, these funds have been taken out of the country and out of the reach of officials.

Hassan Rouhani, the 11th President, has clearly stated in one of his speeches the roots of corruption in Iran. He said, “If we gather together guns, money, newspapers, websites, and advertisements, corruption will definitely arise. Even Abu Dharr and Salman, if they were present, would become corrupt. Therefore, the world has realized the need to separate these powers.” (7).

The unique political structure of Iran and the hierarchical distribution of power includes multiple powerful centers such as the presidency, parliament, Guardian Council, Revolutionary Guards, Foundation of the Oppressed, and other foundations, which limits the accountability of those responsible for financial and administrative corruption.

Furthermore, the lack of independence in the judiciary has created a complex web of relationships among political and economic power holders, in which cases of grand corruption only occur when internal political interactions within these centers of power are unsuccessful. Corrupt agents and actors are only brought to trial when it serves a political “interest” due to the lack of independence in the judiciary. Due to the absence of democracy and its reduction to participation in elections, the collective power and ability of citizens to hold those in power accountable, especially those within the narrow circle of multiple centers of power, is limited.

Iran is also considered one of the most vulnerable societies in terms of corruption studies and especially the discourse of corruption and gender. Despite their qualifications, education levels, and strong motivations, Iranian women have one of the lowest levels of political and economic participation in the world. In the ninth term of parliament, there were only 9 female representatives, and in the tenth term, there were 17, making up only 8.5% of the total number of representatives. The continuous presence of women in social life is threatened and instead of providing opportunities for capable women, their abilities are not utilized and they face new challenges in each period. In terms of necessary support for working women in relation to administrative and financial corruption, Soheila Jaloudarzadeh, the CEO of the Women Workers Union, stated in a labor day conference: “I have researched the crimes committed by women in the Ministry of Industry, Mines, and Trade and found that administrative and financial corruption, as well as the exploitation

Women, when placed on the margins of society and lacking serious presence in the entrepreneurial and societal landscape, do not have access to the power dynamics that could position them to hold those in power accountable for corruption. While corruption is more prevalent among men, if women and men were to have equal opportunities in various social, political, and economic spheres, it is possible that corruption among women would also be on par with men.

Resources

1- Elliott 1997 – Rose Ackerman 1999.

2- Daniel Kaufmann – 2015.

The website of Transparency International – 2015 Report.

4- Jhc & Saranji – 2015.

This translates to “4- Jhc & Saranji – 2015.” It is not a complete sentence and does not have a clear meaning. It could possibly be a title or a reference to a specific event or collaboration between Jhc and Saranji in the year 2015. Without more context, it is difficult to determine the exact meaning.

The text is discussing the correlation between gender and corruption in a 1999 working paper from the IRS Center, with the reference number 232.

6- Breen M. – Gillanders – R.Menahy.

7- Molkan, Mostafa, Why is financial corruption incurable in the Islamic Republic?, Deutsche Welle Persian, 25 February 2015.

8- Administrative and financial corruption is rampant among women, Mehrkhaneh, 9 Ordibehesht 1394.

بیشتر اطلاعات:

More information:

IMF Staff Dissection note – Corruption: Costs and Mitigating Strategies – May 2016.

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