Mohammad Mohabi

Sociology of the body is a branch of sociology that specifically focuses on the concept of corporéité, as a social phenomenon. The importance of this study lies in the fact that it is an indicator of the relationship between humans and the outside world, which takes shape through social and cultural influences.

The human body is a center through which the relationship between humans and the external world becomes reality; in fact, the place and time of existence are manifested through the specific image of an actor. Through the body, humans embody their essence of life and express it to others through their shared symbolic systems with members of a community. The actor thus brings the world into their own control and makes it their own; in doing so, they make the world human and transform it into a familiar and comprehensible phenomenon, carrying meanings and values that can be experienced by any other actor who is part of the same cultural system.

The important point is that the body, which may seem like a simple phenomenon, is not a simple and unquestionable data, but rather the result of a social and cultural interpretation. The body is a cultural and social interpretation in the structure of a society that operates as complex circuits of spatial-temporal-meaning and therefore must always transform time, space, and meaning into exchangeable representations.

Throughout history, we have encountered three periods of sociology of the body.

First, the era of implicit sociology of the body, which does not pay much attention to the concept of the human body; second, the era of disconnected sociology, which is constantly seeking new discoveries about the body from the 1960s onwards, and thus deals with powerful imaginary elements in relation to the body, but this era has not been able to systematically analyze these elements. And third, the sociology of the body, which is currently being formed in a cohesive manner, and its increasing literature and expanding vocabulary and concepts in its field of study, demonstrate the breadth of topics being studied in this field.

1- Background of Sociology of the Body

There is no doubt that in most societies, women pay more attention and show more sensitivity and attention to their beauty and appearance compared to men. This abundant attention leads them to adopt extreme behaviors in order to conform to the cultural standards of beauty for face and body, which are promoted in mass media and beauty industry advertisements, sometimes resulting in negative consequences. The image that women have of themselves greatly affects their sense of satisfaction and ultimately their mental and physical health, as well as their perception and relationship with their bodies. These are questions that have been studied and researched within the framework of sociological studies, especially in the fields of gender and body sociology. Since body sociology is a relatively new specialization in the field of medical sociology and is still unknown to many, I will briefly introduce this sub-branch of sociology.

Michel Foucault, the French social theorist, focused on the history of the medical profession and his exploration of the human body as a subject of control and medical intervention. His analysis of the surveillance carried out by the government, church, and medicine, particularly in regards to the most private human activity – sexuality, led to the creation of a new specialized field in sociology called the sociology of the body. This was further solidified with the publication of Brian Turner’s book, “Body and Society,” which is considered one of the foundational works in this field. (Cockerham, 2001) Cockerham, himself an American sociologist, recognizes the recent theoretical advancements in understanding the sociological aspects of control, use, and phenomenological experience of the body, including emotions and feelings, in Britain, where this topic has become a major focus in the sociology of medicine.

Another area of discussion in sociology of the body is the social construction of the body and emotions. This refers to how society constructs and processes the body and emotions. The social constructionist approach in medical sociology is heavily influenced by the ideas of Michel Foucault, who analyzes the body as a product of power and knowledge (Annandale, 1998; Nettleton, 1995; Bury, 1986, cited in Kakarham, 2001). This approach emphasizes the ways in which individuals shape, decorate, present, manage, and socially evaluate their bodies. One concrete example related to this area is the influence of social class. Kakarham refers to the concept of embodiment of class, as used by Chris Shilling, and writes that social class has a profound impact on how individuals develop their bodies and attribute specific symbolic values to physical forms. Shilling recognizes that bodies function as a form of “social capital” whose value is determined by the ability of dominant

2- Sociological Theories of the Body

1-2- Goffman’s theory

Some of the sociological schools that have focused on the body as their subject include the symbolic interactionist school and the works of Canadian sociologist Erving Goffman. Goffman emphasizes the distance between the “social self” or social identity and the “true self.” He explains his understanding of the “self” through a performative approach. According to Goffman, the “self” of individuals is shaped and given meaning through the roles they perform in their everyday lives. He sees social roles and positions as mere performances. In his view, the “self” is also closely related to the body. According to him, physical or bodily agents are also social actors who try to attract the attention of others through various forms of social signaling. These physical agents are “embodied markers of status and position” that can be interpreted by other actors. (Lopez and Scott, 2006: p. 155)

2-2- Bourdieu’s theory

Bourdieu sees the goal of body management as acquiring status, distinction, and a foundation. In his analysis of the body, he refers to the commodification of the body in modern societies, which appears as physical capital. Bourdieu sees the production of this physical capital in the growth and expansion of the body, so that the body becomes a carrier of value in social fields. According to Bourdieu, the body, as a comprehensive form of physical capital, is a symbol of social status and distinction. (Schilling, 1993: p. 12) The transformation of physical capital essentially means the translation and interpretation of the presence of the body in various forms of capital (economic, social, and cultural) in the fields of work, leisure, etc. By considering the body as a physical capital, Bourdieu aligns individuals’ identities with social values that are related to the size, shape, and appearance of the body. (Ibid: pp. 12

3-2- Anthony Giddens’ theory

According to Giddens, “self-styling and self-decoration are related to the dynamism of personality. In this sense, clothing is not only an important tool for concealing or revealing different aspects of personal life, but also a means of self-expression; because it connects common customs and principles of dress to personal identity.” (Giddens, 2006: p.95)

According to Giddens, facial expressions and other body movements are the indicators and signs that our everyday communications are dependent on. In other words, in order to equally participate in the production and reproduction of social relationships with others, we must be able to continuously and successfully monitor our own facial expressions and body movements. (Same: pp.86-87) Additionally, in his view: “The reality is that we are more responsible than ever for designing our own bodies, and the further our social activities move away from traditional society, the more pressure we feel in this responsibility.” (Same: p.149)

4-2- Exchange theory

Based on the theory of exchange, individual responses are based on the principle of reward and punishment; meaning that the individual responds favorably to aspects that involve reward and avoids aspects that involve punishment. (Edibi and Ansari, 2004: p.254) One of the general principles in the theory of exchange is the existence of benefit in performing an action. In this sense, an action does not take place in a vacuum and everyone must give something in return for what they receive. Cost is also an effort that is made as a result of a specific choice and setting aside other lost choices, and in other words, it is the expenditure of obtaining satisfaction and potential rewards. (Skidmore, 1996: p.79)

In the theory of exchange, social approval is a general term that can be seen as the common currency for all rewards resulting from an action. People are constantly seeking to fulfill their desires in life and enjoy it in their social relationships. Approval can take on many tangible forms. In other words, beings in any situation behave in a way that brings the most rewards and the least punishments. (Adibi and Ansari, 2004: p.263)

3- Details of the objection to the appeal.

Perhaps no one ever thought that one day a health issue like epilation (removal of excess body hair) would make headlines. But it happened a few days ago; news websites reported that a letter was published by individuals who were referred to as “a group of people from cultural and social institutions and various segments of the people of Qazvin”, warning officials about the “spread of full body epilation” and the “launch of specialized epilation salons” in this city and demanding action against it.

This open letter was first published on the “Qazvin News” website, by active websites close to the fundamentalist movements in Qazvin province, as well as the main authors of the letter, with the following title: “Addressing the Political and Security Deputy of the Governorate / Open Letter from Cultural Activists”.

In some parts of this letter it is mentioned: “For several mornings, many beauty salons in our city have turned into a playground for some of the satellite program directors, and in this regard, they are competing to earn more income?! They are taking advantage of each other.

If we take a look at the list of services provided by these centers, it is clear that this free service is aimed at attacking the modesty and chastity of our society’s women in order to harm the cultural front of the enemy. These services, which are offered with the goal of showcasing the beauty and femininity of women in public spaces instead of providing a safe home environment, have had destructive consequences on those who are aware of social and family matters. Unfortunately, for some time now, the puzzle of such services, which are often considered against Sharia law, has reached its peak by performing full body epilation in many of these centers and has provided the grounds for the beginning of some moral abnormalities. Even illegal and unlicensed centers have been operating under the name of specialized epilation salons in this city, engaging in income-generating activities without any concern or assurance of supervision from responsible organizations.

4- Body and debauchery

In Iran, almost all levels of society have been affected by some form of degeneration. Even the most extreme religious groups have fallen into superficial and distorted views of religion. This distorted religiosity, rooted in ritualistic and ceremonial practices, is a concept that is not well-known among Iranian intellectuals. It falls within the realm of religious sociology.

In ritualistic and ceremonial religion, the outward aspect of worship and the texts of jurisprudence dominate over the other aspect of religion. This form of religion, which is the religion of the majority of society and the general public, emphasizes the performance of ceremonies and participation in rituals that may have become a “mechanical or contractual process,” without the accompaniment of intentions and emotions that give it a human meaning. If people perform the movements and gestures of religious ceremonies without the accompanying intentions and emotions that give it a human meaning, then that ceremony is merely superficial.

Ritualistic religiosity, in an extreme state, is drawn towards religious formalism or excessive appearance. The spirit of religion and the essence of the law are sacrificed in the execution of religious ceremonies, and only empty forms remain. This type of religiosity can also be called “physical- bodily- limb” religiosity. Physical or bodily religiosity is when religion only affects the body of the religious person and influences their limbs. For example, in fasting, the mouth remains open from not eating, in prayer, it is the body that bends and straightens. In other religious ceremonies, it is the eyes that shed tears, and so on.

The realm and domination of religious influence is at its maximum in the mind and body of a religious person, while the other two realms of a human being, namely the heart and soul of a religious person, and the realm of their intellect and knowledge, are devoid of religion. Therefore, based on these three realms of a human being, the types of religious individuals will be different.

Religious ritualism is usually a superficial form of religiosity. It is a part-time religiosity. A person may be religious during certain times and rituals, but after the ceremony is over, they temporarily forget about their religion. Religious ritualism is like an athlete who only performs during training or competitions, but once they leave the gym, they leave behind their exercises. It lacks a true understanding of religion, religious concerns, sensitivities, and questions. It provides a sense of certainty. In this form of religiosity, everything is predetermined. It does not involve seeking, religious anxiety, or turmoil. Religious ritualism finds peace and tranquility through performing ceremonies and rituals. Everything is defined for them, and there is no room for questioning. They have reached the sun and left behind the dust. For religious ritualists, questioning religion or having doubts is seen as disbelief and leaving the religion.

In the above statement, we see the peak of extremism and religiosity in the actions of individuals. Other examples of this are the reduction of all religious matters in society to the issue of hijab and women’s clothing.

The history of religiosity shows that the majority of humans have been devoted to ritualistic and ceremonial practices. It can be argued that traditional religion is based on rituals and performing ceremonies. Ritualistic religion diminishes the importance of ceremonies and rituals. However, it should be noted that traditional religiosity is duty-oriented when it comes to performing religious rituals. They fulfill their religious duties in order to attain happiness. This type of religiosity does not involve fleeting emotions or irrational feelings. Instead, it is based on repeating habits and actions according to the traditions of the past. Traditional religiosity is highly susceptible to being performative, as we see in theater or cinema. This performative aspect is a degradation of ritualistic and ceremonial religiosity. In this performative aspect, rituals lose their true meaning and become trivialized. Superficial and fleeting emotions become the main focus. Performative religiosity is a shallow and emotional form of religiosity.

Even this type of religious action can be seen in phenomena such as mourning. The main literature used in this kind of religious activity is lyrical and emotional literature. Without addressing the essence and purpose of the movement and epic, attention is paid to the members and limbs of individuals.

Ritualistic religiosity caricatures religion. It throws away the original essence of religion and presents a distorted image of it by disrupting its structural harmony. It is similar to a caricature of a person, where one feature of their face is exaggerated or diminished in an uneven proportion, and the other features are also thrown off from their original symmetry.

Governments use the potential of religious and ideological extremists to manipulate the level of demands of the people.

Interfering and questioning the privacy of individuals has serious political, social, and cultural consequences. In such a society, people feel insecure and as a result, become distrustful of the political system and try to challenge laws and norms. Clearly, this approach and frustration will play a role in increasing social problems.

Some parts of the religious community object to a completely personal phenomenon related to personal hygiene such as epilation, as another symbol of the fight against citizens’ privacy.

Privacy is the desire of individuals to freely decide under what conditions and to what extent they reveal their own situation and behavior to others. From a general perspective, privacy is respected for all individuals.

Human, in the world of existence, has a relationship with everything around him, whether living or non-living, and this relationship is interpreted and explained in a certain way. Sometimes the relationship is only on the surface, sometimes as an owner or individual; and sometimes as a trustee; or it may have relationships within the framework of human or divine relationships.

Today, the body may be one of the important aspects of individual and collective life. Society, based on specific goals and values, provides individuals with certain techniques and skills to introduce themselves to others through their bodies. These techniques and methods have their own special tools, equipment, and goods that are produced by individuals and organizations and consumed by other individuals and groups. There are goods for maintaining health, goods for physical fitness and having a desirable appearance, goods for beauty, goods for appropriate clothing, goods related to diet, etc. Each of these social dimensions of the body is studied in specific areas of sociology. One of these areas is the sociology of religion, in which the relationship between religion and the body is studied in a social context.

The final point is that religious members of society must recognize and refrain from interfering in and objecting to individuals’ control and authority over their own bodies in matters that are purely personal and have no relation to the public sphere. Unfortunately, the problem is that the religious community in Iran, like other parts of Iranian society, has been affected by a destructive type of corruption. The religious way of life has also become excessively distorted. This is where the difficult duty of religious scholars becomes most apparent, as they must prevent the excessive corruption of religious members in society.