Dual-Use Infrastructure in Armed Conflicts from the Perspective of International Law/ Sina Yousefi

Before the recent war between Iran on one side and Israel and the United States on the other, the term “dual-use infrastructure” was mainly used in the specialized literature of the law of armed conflict and strategic studies. But with the expansion of the scope of military operations and attacks on facilities that appear civilian […]...

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Dual-Use Research Institutions: Science or Weapon?/ Diako Moradi

Technological developments in recent decades have made the boundary between military and civilian objectives more ambiguous than ever. Universities, research centers, biomedical institutions, data networks, and communications infrastructure, while having civilian functions, can in some cases play a direct or indirect role in states’ defense capabilities. This situation has transformed the concept of “dual-use” from […]...

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How Does International Law Assess the Legitimacy of Attacks on Dual-use infrastructure Targets?/ Maryam Abedi

Dual-use infrastructure is precisely the gray area of international humanitarian law; because it has neither an independent definition in treaties nor an absolute prohibition. Therefore, its definition must be sought within legal texts. In international law, the term “dual-use infrastructure” is not used directly, but its definition can be inferred from Article 52, paragraph 2, […]...

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Children’s Rights in Armed Conflicts: An Examination of the Twelve-Day War Between Iran and Israel/ Abouzar Zaman

The twelve-day war between Iran and Israel was a short-term armed conflict that caused devastating physical, psychological, and financial harm to civilians. Of particular importance is an examination of the rights of children—the most vulnerable group in society—who were directly affected by this war, as well as the responsibilities of governments in this regard. These […]...

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Protection of Medical and Educational Facilities in Armed Conflicts: A Renewed Test for the Credibility of Humanitarian Law/ Neda Ghanbari

Amid the recent twelve-day war, which unfolded along the lines of escalating security tensions between Iran and Israel, one of its most shocking dimensions was the attack on civilian infrastructure—particularly medical centers and emergency bases. Part of these assaults, unfortunately, directly targeted the fundamental right to access healthcare. According to reports published in July 2025 […]...

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A Look at International Humanitarian Law on the Occasion of the Twelve-Day War/ Alireza Goodarzi

War begins when law ends. The epitome of lawlessness is the killing of another human being, and that is the goal of war. If legal solutions worked, there would be no need for war. Yet for centuries we have tried to regulate even this unlawful phenomenon. Examples of wartime restrictions can be seen throughout history. […]...

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The government’s response to the people in the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran / Alireza Goodarzi

Who is the government (in the broad sense) primarily accountable to? The answer is clear on one side and dark on the other. According to international law, the government (State) must be accountable to other governments for some of its actions. Unfortunately, the Islamic Republic of Iran has not done much to contribute to the […]...

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The Right to Sustainable Energy: From Claim to Human Right / Alireza Goodarzi

Human rights are a collection of rights that are interconnected and organically related to each other. It is not possible to respect one right and violate others. They are all necessary for the preservation of human life and dignity and fit within a system. What is now and more commonly referred to as the human […]...

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Sterilization from the perspective of international human rights standards / Shahin Sadegh Zadeh Milan

“منظوری که به آن نگاه می کنی، تغییر می کند” “The perspective you look at, changes.” Shahin Sadegh Zadeh Milan After the release of images of citizens known as “grave sleepers”, the discussion of sterilization as a solution to prevent the increase of homeless individuals or “cardboard sleepers” in the virtual space was raised. Addressing […]...

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